Medieval Europe was a world steeped in superstition, where the lines between reality and fantasy were often blurred. From the great halls of castles to the humble hearths of peasant homes, tales of strange and terrifying creatures were whispered and passed down through generations. These beasts, born from a combination of ancient mythologies, religious beliefs, and the collective fears and imaginations of medieval people, provide a fascinating window into the psyche and culture of the time.
In this article, we will delve into 25 of the most bizarre and fearsome creatures that populated medieval folklore. We will explore their origins, significance, and evolution, as well as their impact on art, literature, and popular culture. By examining these monsters through the lens of a historian, we can gain a deeper understanding of the medieval world and the people who inhabited it.
The Medieval Bestiary: A Compendium of Creatures
One of the most important sources for our knowledge of medieval monsters is the bestiary, a type of illuminated manuscript that catalogued and described various animals, both real and imaginary. These bestiaries were popular throughout Europe from the 12th to the 15th centuries and often served as moral and religious allegories as well as zoological guides.
According to historian Willene B. Clark, over 100 distinct medieval bestiaries have survived to the present day, with many more likely lost to time (Clark, 2006). These bestiaries provide detailed descriptions and illustrations of countless creatures, from the majestic unicorn to the monstrous manticore.
Creatures of the Earth: Terrestrial Terrors
Many of the most famous and fearsome creatures of medieval folklore were said to roam the lands of Europe and beyond. These terrestrial terrors combined features of real animals with the fantastic and the grotesque, embodying the fears and anxieties of medieval people.
1. The Basilisk
The basilisk, also known as the king of serpents, was one of the deadliest beasts in medieval lore. It was described as a crested reptile with the head of a rooster, the body of a snake, and the ability to kill with a single glance. According to the 13th-century bestiary MS Bodley 764, "The basilisk is the king of snakes… It kills by its odour, and by its appearance, and by its hissing" (Barber, 1999, p. 184).
The basilisk was said to be born from a rooster‘s egg hatched by a serpent or toad, and its venom was so potent that it could poison entire rivers and wells. In medieval art, the basilisk often represented sin, death, and the devil himself.
2. The Manticore
The manticore, a fearsome man-eater with the body of a lion, the head of a human, and a tail full of venomous spines, originated in Persian mythology but became a popular figure in medieval European folklore. The 2nd-century Greek physician Ctesias described the manticore as having "a face like a man‘s, a skin red as cinnabar, and eyes like a lion‘s. Its tail has a sting like a scorpion‘s" (Nichols, 2008, p. 56).
In medieval bestiaries, the manticore was often depicted as a symbol of evil and deception, luring its victims with a human voice before devouring them. Some scholars believe that tales of the manticore may have been inspired by sightings of tigers or other large cats in ancient Persia and India (Goldberg, 2019).
3. The Bonnacon
The bonnacon, a strange hybrid of a bull and a horse, was known for its unusual defense mechanism. When threatened, it would expel a stream of burning dung that could scorch pursuers from a great distance. The 12th-century bestiary MS Bodley 764 describes the bonnacon as having "the mane of a horse, but in other respects it resembles a bull" and notes that "when it is pursued it discharges excrement to a distance of three acres, the heat of which burns up whatever it touches" (White, 1960, p. 29).
The origins of the bonnacon are unclear, but some historians speculate that it may have been inspired by accounts of wild cattle or bison in the ancient world (Gravestock, 1999).
Creatures of the Air: Winged Wonders and Horrors
Medieval folklore was also populated by a host of flying creatures, from the majestic to the monstrous. These winged wonders and horrors embodied the mysteries and dangers of the skies, and their appearances often heralded great changes or catastrophes.
4. The Caladrius
The caladrius was a pure white bird that was said to have the power to predict the outcome of an illness. When brought to the bedside of a sick person, the caladrius would either gaze into their face, absorbing the illness and then flying towards the sun to dispel it, or turn its head away, signaling that the person would soon die.
The 12th-century French cleric Philippe de Thaon wrote of the caladrius in his bestiary, stating that "if the sick man is to die, the bird will turn away… but if the man is to live, the bird will gaze into his face and draw all the sickness into itself" (Hassig, 1995, p. 147). The caladrius was often used as a symbol of Christ‘s healing power and his ability to take on the sins of humanity.
5. The Cockatrice
The cockatrice, a deadly hybrid of a rooster and a serpent, was said to be born from a rooster‘s egg incubated by a toad or snake. It had the head, wings, and feet of a rooster, with the tail of a dragon or serpent. The cockatrice‘s gaze could turn a person to stone, and its venom was so potent that it could kill with a single drop.
In medieval bestiaries, the cockatrice was often depicted as a symbol of sin and heresy. The 13th-century English bestiary Harley MS 4751 describes the cockatrice as "the king of serpents… so full of venom that it gleams all over, and any living creature that sees its eyes falls dead on the spot" (Barber, 1999, p. 184).
6. The Peryton
The peryton, a strange hybrid of a stag and a bird, was said to inhabit the mythical island of Atlantis. It had the head, neck, and antlers of a stag, with the wings and body of a large bird. According to the 1st-century Roman writer Pliny the Elder, the peryton cast a human shadow, and if this shadow was seen by a person, they would die soon after (Rackham, 1967).
The peryton‘s origins are unclear, but some scholars believe it may have been inspired by sightings of large, exotic birds such as the cassowary or the ostrich (Hassig, 1995).
Creatures of the Water: Aquatic Aberrations
The seas, rivers, and lakes of medieval Europe were thought to be home to a variety of strange and terrifying creatures. These aquatic aberrations embodied the mysteries and dangers of the deep, and their appearances often signaled impending doom or divine retribution.
7. The Ziphius
The ziphius, a monstrous water owl with a fish‘s tail and a pointed beak, was said to inhabit the ocean depths. It used its sword-like bill to skewer fish and its owl-like eyes to see in the darkness of the abyss. Some accounts described the ziphius as growing to immense sizes, capable of sinking ships with its powerful beak.
The 13th-century bestiary Harley MS 4751 describes the ziphius as "a sea monster… It has the body of a fish, but with a beak like a sword with which it pierces ships and sinks them" (White, 1960, p. 198). The ziphius was often used as a symbol of the destructive power of the sea and the helplessness of humans in the face of nature‘s fury.
8. The Serra
The serra, a massive sea monster with the body of a fish and a crest of sharp spines, was said to inhabit the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. It would lie in wait for ships, then use its saw-like crest to slice through their hulls and sink them. The 12th-century bestiary MS Bodley 764 describes the serra as "a very large fish… It has long wings and on its head a crest like a saw with which it can slice ships open" (Barber, 1999, p. 199).
Some historians believe that tales of the serra may have been inspired by sightings of sawfish or other large, crested fish (Szabo, 2008). The serra was often used as a symbol of the dangers and unpredictability of sea travel in the medieval world.
9. The Hippocampus
The hippocampus, a creature with the head and forequarters of a horse and the tail of a fish, was a popular figure in medieval art and heraldry. It was said to inhabit the oceans and was often associated with the Greek god Poseidon (Neptune in Roman mythology).
In medieval bestiaries, the hippocampus was sometimes depicted as a symbol of Christ, with its dual nature representing his human and divine aspects (Hassig, 1995). The hippocampus also appeared frequently in medieval manuscripts, tapestries, and architectural decorations, often in the context of sea voyages or naval battles.
Creatures of the Imagination: Fantastical Beasts
In addition to the terrestrial, aerial, and aquatic monsters, medieval folklore was filled with a host of purely fantastical beasts that defied categorization. These creatures, born from the depths of the human imagination, embodied the hopes, fears, and wonder of the medieval world.
10. The Unicorn
The unicorn, a white horse-like creature with a single spiraling horn, was one of the most popular and enduring creatures of medieval folklore. It was said to be so swift and wild that it could only be tamed by a virgin maiden. In medieval art and literature, the unicorn often served as a symbol of purity, grace, and Christ himself.
The 12th-century Italian scholar Petrus Alfonsi described the unicorn in his work Disciplina Clericalis, stating that "its horn is so sharp that whatever it strikes, it pierces easily" and that "the unicorn is too strong to be caught by hunters, except by a trick" (Alfonsi, 1977, p. 131). The hunt of the unicorn, in which a maiden would lure the creature to sleep in her lap before hunters captured it, was a popular theme in medieval art and tapestries.
11. The Phoenix
The phoenix, a magnificent bird that could rise from its own ashes, was a symbol of resurrection and eternal life in medieval folklore. It was said to live for 500 years before building a nest of aromatic woods and spices, setting itself on fire, and then rising anew from the ashes.
The 12th-century bestiary MS Bodley 764 describes the phoenix as "a bird of Arabia… When it grows old it builds itself a nest of frankincense and myrrh and other aromatic plants, and when the time comes it enters the nest and dies. From its bones and marrow there arises at first as it were a little worm, which in time changes into a young bird" (Barber, 1999, p. 149). The phoenix was often used as a symbol of Christ‘s resurrection and the promise of eternal life for the faithful.
12. The Vegetable Lamb
The vegetable lamb, also known as the barometz, was a strange plant-animal hybrid that was said to grow in Central Asia. It was described as a lamb-like creature that sprouted from a seed and remained attached to the ground by a stem, grazing on the surrounding vegetation until it had consumed all within reach, at which point it would wither and die.
The 14th-century English traveler Sir John Mandeville wrote of the vegetable lamb in his book The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, stating that "there groweth a manner of fruit, as though it were gourds; and when they be ripe, men cut them in two, and men find within a little beast, in flesh, in bone and blood, as though it were a little lamb without wool" (Mandeville, 1983, p. 180). The vegetable lamb was often used as a symbol of the strange and wondrous creatures that were thought to inhabit the distant reaches of the world.
The Legacy of Medieval Monsters
The bizarre and fearsome creatures of medieval folklore may seem like mere fantasies to modern readers, but they played a significant role in shaping the beliefs, values, and imaginations of medieval people. These monsters served as moral and religious allegories, as cautionary tales about the dangers of the unknown, and as expressions of the deepest fears and anxieties of the time.
Today, many of these creatures continue to capture the imagination and inspire new works of art, literature, and popular culture. From the dragons and unicorns of fantasy novels to the monsters of horror films and video games, the legacy of medieval folklore lives on.
By studying these creatures through the lens of history, we can gain a deeper understanding of the medieval world and the people who inhabited it. We can see how the collective fears, hopes, and imaginations of a society can give rise to a rich and enduring tradition of storytelling and mythmaking.
In the words of historian Umberto Eco, "the Middle Ages have always been considered as the dark centuries, an interlude between the splendor of Antiquity and the Renaissance, but it is in the Middle Ages that we find the first signs of our modern world" (Eco, 1986, p. 64). The bizarre and fearsome creatures of medieval folklore are a testament to the enduring power of human creativity and the timeless fascination with the unknown and the extraordinary.
References
Alfonsi, P. (1977). The Disciplina Clericalis of Petrus Alfonsi. University of California Press.
Barber, R. (1999). Bestiary: Being an English Version of the Bodleian Library, Oxford MS Bodley 764. Boydell Press.
Clark, W. B. (2006). A Medieval Book of Beasts: The Second-Family Bestiary. Boydell Press.
Eco, U. (1986). Art and Beauty in the Middle Ages. Yale University Press.
Goldberg, E. L. (2019). Bestiary: The History and Legend of Mythical Creatures. Chartwell Books.
Gravestock, P. (1999). Did Imaginary Animals Exist? In D. Hassig (Ed.), The Mark of the Beast: The Medieval Bestiary in Art, Life, and Literature (pp. 119-136). Garland Publishing.
Hassig, D. (1995). Medieval Bestiaries: Text, Image, Ideology. Cambridge University Press.
Mandeville, J. (1983). The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. Penguin Books.
Nichols, J. (2008). The Complete Fragments of Ctesias of Cnidus: Translation and Commentary with an Introduction. University of Florida.
Rackham, H. (1967). Pliny: Natural History, Volume III, Books 8-11. Harvard University Press.
Szabo, V. E. (2008). Monstrous Fishes and the Mead-Dark Sea: Whaling in the Medieval North Atlantic. Brill.
White, T. H. (1960). The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts. G. P. Putnam‘s Sons.
