If you were a knight or man-at-arms preparing for battle in medieval Europe, one of your most important pieces of equipment was your helmet. More than just a metal hat, your helmet was a critical, life-saving tool – it had to deflect the blows of enemy swords, protect your eyes from arrows, and cushion your skull from the crushing impact of maces and axes, all while allowing you to see and breathe during the chaos of combat.
As fighting styles, weapons technology, and armor-crafting techniques evolved throughout the Middle Ages, so too did helmets. The 12th century in particular was an important period of innovation that saw the emergence of revolutionary new designs that set the stage for the knightly helmets of the High Middle Ages. In this article, we‘ll take an in-depth look at the major types of helmets worn in the 1100s, explore the arms race driving their rapid development, and discover what helmets reveal about the warriors who wore them and the society that made them.
The Helmet Scene of 1100 AD
At the dawn of the 12th century, two main helmet types dominated European battlefields: the spangenhelm and the conical/nasal helmet. Spangenhelms, whose name comes from the German word for the metal strips that formed their framework, were the headgear of choice for most of the Early Middle Ages, with examples dating back as far as the 6th century. Made by riveting together multiple pieces of iron or steel, spangenhelms provided decent protection but had some weaknesses. Their multi-piece construction meant they could be prone to falling apart under heavy blows, and their open-faced design left the eyes, nose and mouth exposed.
By 1100, spangenhelms had largely been supplanted by the conical or "nasal" helmet, which takes its name from the long nose guard that was its signature feature. Conicals were made from a single sheet of metal, making them more durable and stable than spangenhelms. Their simple, enclosed skull cap also did a better job protecting against downward strikes to the head. Virtually every contemporary depiction of Norman and Anglo-Saxon troops battling at Hastings in 1066, like the famous Bayeux Tapestry, shows them equipped with conical helms of similar shape, reflecting their universal adoption.
The Norman Conquest played an important role in the spread of the conical helmet. When William the Conqueror‘s army charged up the hill at Hastings, they were equipped with the latest in Norman military technology, including conical helmets with long nasal guards. The success of William‘s conquest established the Norman military model as the one to emulate across Europe. Through the 11th and into the 12th century, the Norman-style conical helmet became the standard for feudal troops from England to Germany to Italy.
The 12th Century Arms Race
But medieval warfare never stayed the same for long. The 12th century saw an escalating arms race between offense and defense, as advancing weapons technology and changing tactics put helmets to the test. The increased use of the crossbow, for example, capable of punching through shields and mail at close range, heightened the threat of projectiles to the face. Experiments with couched lance charges and tighter, more disciplined cavalry formations made head-on collisions a greater danger. And the development of longer, more tapered swords and narrow axe heads made it easier for blows to penetrate helmet openings.
In response, armorers looked for ways to improve head protection while preserving visibility and mobility. The classic Norman-style conical helmet gradually gave way to new shapes and features as the 12th century progressed:
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Phrygian caps: Seen in artwork from the mid-12th century, some conical helmets adopted a forward-leaning profile and scalloped rear that resembled the caps worn by the ancient Phrygians. The Phrygian shape created a deflective curve that could help glance off blows and missiles.
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Flat-topped and rounded helms: In the later 1100s, more helmets appear with a flatter or slightly rounded skull piece instead of a pointed apex. Experts theorize this was an attempt to reduce weak points and more completely enclose the crown of the head.
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Face guards: In another effort to protect the vulnerable eyes, nose and mouth, face-covering guards in various styles began to appear on helmets by 1150. Some had metal "masks" with eye slits, others a cage-like arrangement of bars, and some just simple metal bands across the brow line. These add-ons anticipated later enclosed visor designs.
| Helmet Type | Date Range | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Conical/nasal | c. 1000-1180 | Pointed apex, single-piece skull, long nasal guard |
| Phrygian cap | c. 1140-1180 | Forward-leaning shape, scalloped rear |
| Flat-topped/rounded | c. 1160-1200 | Flatter or rounded skull, enclosing more of head |
| Face-guarded | c. 1150-1200 | Partial face covering of mask, bars, or bands |
The Birth of Enclosed Helmets
By the close of the 12th century, the need for greater head and face protection had led to the development of the first "enclosed" helmets, which would revolutionize head armor for the rest of the Middle Ages. Instead of an open or partially-covered face, these new helmets featured a full face plate with small openings for the eyes and mouth, encasing the entire head in a shell of steel.
The iconic image of a Norman knight charging into battle in a fully-enclosed helm comes from the near-life-size bronze equestrian statue of Richard the Lionheart commissioned for the king‘s funeral in 1199. With its hinged face plate and fluted, mask-like appearance, Richard‘s helmet was a bold declaration of the power and sophistication of the armorer‘s craft at the turn of the 13th century.
Intriguingly, Richard‘s first Great Seal, struck in 1189, shows the king wearing a typical 12th-century flat-topped helmet with only a nasal guard. But his second seal of 1198 depicts him in a fully enclosed helm with a face visor, like the one on his tomb effigy. This rapid switch suggests enclosed helmets evolved from cutting-edge innovations to the new must-have headgear for the knightly elite within a single decade at the end of the 1100s.
12th-Century Snoods? The Curious Case of the Kettle Hat
Not all 12th-century helmet innovations were limited to knights and heavy cavalry. The kettle hat, which seems to have originated in Western Europe around 1150, became a hit with infantry and general-purpose soldiers. Named for its likeness to a metal cooking vessel, the kettle hat featured a wide, downward-sloping brim attached to a simple rounded or brimless helmet. Some also hadmail curtains called "aventails" attached to the brim to protect the neck.
The kettle hat‘s simple yet effective design made it relatively easy and economical to produce compared to the fancy helmets of the knightly class. Archaeological finds like the famous Gevninge helmet (ca. 1200), pieced together from more than 500 excavated fragments, show kettle hats could be made from just a few large metal parts.
One popular fighting manual of the 1300s, the I.33 sword and buckler treatise, shows the kettle hat was often worn over a mail coif for added protection. In fact, the versatile kettle hat remained a common choice for soldiers well into the 16th century. And its wide brim seems to have inspired later medieval helmets like the chapel-de-fer and cabasset, which used a similar visor shape to defend the face.
Secrets of the Helmet Makers
The dizzying speed of helmet evolution in the 12th century is a testament to the skill and ingenuity of medieval craftsmen. So how were these helmets actually made? While the specifics of helmet construction could vary, most followed a typical sequence:
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Pieces of iron or low-carbon steel were heated in a forge until malleable and hammered into rough shapes on an anvil.
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The metal was further worked to create the desired helmet shape, often by sinking it over a large, helmet-shaped "stake" to form a rounded skull piece. Strips of metal could be riveted on to form brims, visors, and other features.
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Once the metal cooled, the helmet was polished to remove hammer marks and imperfections. This also made the surface more resistant to rust.
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Additional decorative touches could be added like etched or gilt designs, inscription bands, or even "jeweled" studs (often glass). Padded cloth or leather linings were fastened inside for comfort and fit.
Based on the close similarity of helmets across regions, it‘s likely that professional armorers were working from a set of common patterns and techniques that became "industry standard." The 12th century saw a growth in the number of professional, urban-based workshops dedicated to armor-making, which helps explain the rapid dissemination of new helmet technologies and fashions.
At the same time, helmets in the 12th century were taking on an important symbolic role beyond mere tools of war. For the knightly elite, helmets were potent status symbols used to project power, wealth and taste. The lavishly decorated helmets of kings and great lords were as much a sign of conspicuous consumption as they were practical protection. Just as a blinged-out Rolex today says "I‘ve made it," a custom-made helmet with all the latest bells and whistles told other 12th-century knights that you were a force to be reckoned with, on the battlefield and off.
Conclusion
From the Norman Conquest to the Third Crusade, helmets underwent a rapid evolution in the 12th century, driven by an arms race between weapons and armor technology. The iconic conical helm of 1100 gave rise to a profusion of new forms by 1200, from the elegant curves of the Phrygian and the imposing face masks of the earliest closed helms, to the simple but effective kettle hat.
These 12th-century innovations laid the groundwork for the great helms, basinets, and other classic helmets of the High Middle Ages, whose influence can still be seen today in military gear and pop culture. They also testify to the ingenuity of medieval craftsmen, who married the latest fashions and symbolic needs of a warrior elite to the practical demands of all-out warfare.
So the next time you see a medieval helmet in a museum or fantasy movie, take a moment to look beyond the flashy crests and gleaming gold to appreciate the 12th-century roots of that headgear. The 1100s were indeed the "helmeted age" that propelled medieval armor forward in leaps and bounds, creating enduring archetypes that still define the way we imagine history‘s armored warriors today.
