Since the days of the Bayeux Tapestry, illustrations have played a vital role in documenting and disseminating information about the medieval era. In a pre-photography world, it fell to skilled artists to capture the people, events, and material culture of the time period. The illustrated chronicles and later printed works they created didn‘t just record history—they shaped the very way it was understood and remembered.
Today, a talented group of historical illustrators continues this tradition, combining rigorous research with artistic skill to reconstruct the medieval past in vivid visual detail. Through their work, they invite us to be firsthand witnesses to distant events and breathe life into the static facts of history books.
Turning a Paintbrush into a Time Machine
For medieval historical illustrators, the goal is not simply to create a compelling artwork, but to open a window to a specific moment in time. "What I‘m essentially doing is building a time machine on canvas," explains illustrator Matthew Ryan. "My job is to transport the viewer back to a particular place, event and even mindset, making them feel as if they are standing there at a precise instant in history."
To achieve this, Ryan and his fellow illustrators must first dedicate themselves to intensive research. No detail is too small to be scrutinized and carefully recreated. A single battle scene may involve months of study into the weapons, armor, heraldry, battlefield tactics, and even topography and weather conditions of the day.
The Bayeux Tapestry, which dates back to the 11th century, exemplifies this blending of artistry and historiography. Its intricately embroidered scenes provide one of the most detailed visual records of arms, armor, and combat tactics from the time of the Norman Conquest. While not a photograph, it is a meticulous attempt to document military technologies and practices based on the best available knowledge of the time period.
The tradition of pictorial historical record-keeping continued to evolve throughout the medieval period. In the 12th and 13th centuries, illustrated chronicles became increasingly common, acting as a form of military and political reportage. A famous example is the 13th-century Chronica Majora by Matthew Paris, which included detailed illustrations of battles and sieges alongside the written account.
By the 15th century, illustrations in printed books began to give the wider public unprecedented visual access to historical events. Groundbreaking works like Hartmann Schedel‘s Nuremberg Chronicle (1493) included over 1,800 woodcut illustrations depicting scenes from antiquity up to the date of publication. This visual mode of historiography set the stage for our modern notion of "picturing the past."
The Art of Research
For today‘s historical illustrators, following in the footsteps of these early pioneers means undertaking painstaking research to ensure that each detail rings true to the time period. Illustrator Peter Dennis, known for his work on the Osprey Military publishing line, describes his process as "forensic."
"I start by gathering as much primary source material as possible—contemporary accounts, chronicles, manuscript illustrations, anything that can give me unfiltered access to the time," Dennis explains. "From there, I turn to the archaeological record to fill out the material details, looking at everything from excavated weapons and armor to the composition of textiles and dyes."
This attention to detail is exemplified in Dennis‘s work on the 1415 Battle of Agincourt. To accurately depict the English army‘s longbow archers, Dennis drew on a wealth of historical and archaeological sources. Contemporary accounts, such as that of Jehan de Wavrin, provided clues to the archers‘ positioning and battle formations. Archaeological findings, including arrowheads from the battlefield site, gave insight into the design and materials of the deadly longbows.
Dennis even commissioned a batch of arrows to be crafted using traditional techniques and materials—an example of experimental archaeology that has become an increasingly common tool for historical illustrators. "There‘s nothing quite like holding the actual object in your hand," Dennis noted. "It gives you a feel for the heft and balance that you can then translate into the artwork."
Matthew Ryan takes a similarly immersive approach to research for his medieval battle scenes. For his depiction of the 1265 Battle of Evesham, Ryan spent months poring over sources like the Chronica Majora and the Annals of Waverly to glean details about the participants, troop movements, and key moments in the fight. He also closely studied the topography of the battlefield site and consulted with experts on medieval weather patterns to ensure the scene was environmentally accurate.
"I want to get as close as possible to what it would have been like to stand there on that day," Ryan explains. "The gathering of visual reference material is crucial, but it‘s equally important to try to get inside the head of a medieval soldier. What were they seeing, hearing, even smelling and feeling at that moment? Those atmospheric elements are what will sell the accuracy of the scene."
The Evolution of Medieval Military Illustration
The way warfare has been depicted in art has evolved significantly over the centuries, reflecting changing artistic styles, technologies, and cultural attitudes. In the early medieval period, illustrations of battles were often highly stylized, focusing more on symbolic representation than realism. Soldiers and their equipment were depicted in a flattened, iconographic manner, with little attention to individualized details or accurate proportions.
A classic example is the 11th-century Beatus of Liébana manuscript, which includes several battle scenes rendered in a highly abstract style. Figures are arranged in neat rows, their weapons and armor reduced to simple geometric shapes. The emphasis is on conveying the spiritual and allegorical significance of the scene rather than creating a realistic portrait of combat.
By the 13th century, a trend towards greater realism began to emerge in medieval art. Manuscript illustrations from this period, such as those in the Chronica Majora, display a new attention to detail and individualization in the depiction of soldiers. Weapons and armor are rendered with greater specificity, and there is a clear attempt to differentiate between various types of combatants.
This shift towards realism accelerated in the 14th and 15th centuries, as artists began to incorporate new techniques like linear perspective and more naturalistic figural proportions. Battle scenes from this period, such as those in the Hundred Years‘ War Chronicles, display a heightened sense of dynamism and spatial depth. Soldiers are shown in a greater variety of poses and with more individualized facial features and equipment.
For historical illustrators working today, this evolution in artistic style provides both a challenge and an opportunity. On one hand, the move towards greater realism in the later medieval period provides a wealth of visual reference material to draw upon. Detailed illustrations of arms, armor, and battle formations from the 15th century can be invaluable resources for accurately recreating the look and feel of the period.
However, for scenes set in the earlier medieval era, illustrators must grapple with the more limited and stylized nature of the available visual references. This is where their own artistic skill and interpretation comes into play, as they must extrapolate from the symbolic and fill in the realistic details.
"When I‘m working on a scene from the 11th or 12th century, I have to do a bit more imaginative work to bring it to life," explains illustrator Sean O‘Brogain. "The contemporary illustrations from that period are highly stylized, so I have to look at them as more of a starting point than a blueprint. It‘s up to me to take those symbolic representations and translate them into a believable, historically accurate scene."
Accuracy by the Numbers
One way that historical illustrators strive for accuracy is by carefully studying the statistics and numbers provided in historical accounts and archaeological records. These hard data points can provide valuable clues about the scale and composition of medieval armies, the volume of resources expended, and the weaponry employed.
For instance, in his depiction of the 1415 Battle of Agincourt, illustrator Graham Turner drew on a wealth of numerical data to ensure the accuracy of the scene. Contemporary chronicles, such as Enguerrand de Monstrelet‘s, provide detailed figures for the size of the English and French armies. Monstrelet reported that the English had around 1,500 men-at-arms and 7,000 archers, while the French boasted 12,000 men-at-arms and an unknown number of crossbowmen and other infantry.
Turner also consulted archaeological studies of the battlefield site, which uncovered thousands of arrowheads and other artifacts that provide clues about the types of weapons used and their relative prevalence. Analysis of the arrowheads suggests that the English archers unleashed around 75,000 arrows per minute at the height of the battle.
By incorporating these kinds of statistics into the artwork, illustrators can create scenes that convey both the scale and intensity of medieval combat. The vast clouds of arrows darkening the sky in Turner‘s Agincourt painting are not just artistic license—they are a data-driven representation of the staggering volume of projectiles unleashed by the English longbowmen.
Medieval records can also provide granular details about the cost and composition of arms and armor, which can help illustrators achieve a high degree of visual accuracy. The Royal Armouries in Leeds houses a collection of late medieval accounting records that meticulously document the materials and man-hours required to produce a suit of plate armor.
These records show, for instance, that a high-end suit of armor like that worn by a knight or man-at-arms could take a team of specialized craftsmen over a month to produce. It might include over 200 individual plates of steel, each hammered, shaped, and polished by hand. The total cost could exceed a year‘s wages for a skilled artisan.
Illustrators can use these kinds of figures to ensure that the arms and armor depicted in their artwork are not just visually accurate, but economically and logistically plausible for the time period. A scene featuring scores of elaborately-armored knights must take into account the sheer expense and rarity of such equipment on a medieval battlefield.
By grounding their artistic vision in hard data and statistics, illustrators can create battle scenes that convey both the grand sweep of history and the nitty-gritty details that bring it to life. As Graham Turner puts it, "The numbers are what give the artwork authenticity and impact. They turn a tableau into a living slice of the past."
A New Golden Age of Medieval Illustration
While the heyday of illuminated manuscripts may be long past, medieval historical illustration is experiencing something of a renaissance in the digital age. Online galleries, social media, and digital publishing have created new opportunities for illustrators to share their work and collaborate with historians and enthusiasts around the world.
One hub for this activity is the Historical Illustration Commission, an online platform that connects illustrators with clients in need of historically-accurate artwork. Founded in 2019, the HIC has already facilitated over 500 illustration projects, ranging from battle scene reconstructions to architectural visualizations.
"We‘re seeing a real surge of interest in bringing the past to life visually," says HIC co-founder Emma Granger. "There‘s a recognition that in an increasingly visual culture, illustrations can be a powerful tool for engaging people in history. They‘re a way of making the past feel immediate and relatable."
This renewed interest in historical illustration is also being driven by the popularity of historically-themed video games, films, and television shows. Production designers and concept artists for these projects often turn to illustrators to ensure that every visual detail is historically authentic.
"I‘ve worked on several major film and television projects set in the medieval period," says illustrator Kelley Hensing. "The demand for historical accuracy in these productions is higher than ever. They want every costume, prop, and set piece to be thoroughly researched and realistically portrayed."
This attention to detail is exemplified in the 2019 film The King, which tells the story of England‘s Henry V and the Battle of Agincourt. The production team enlisted a cadre of historical advisors and illustrators to ensure that every aspect of the film‘s visual design was grounded in historical research.
Illustrator Francesca Cane was brought on to create concept art for the battle scenes, working closely with military historians to accurately depict the weapons, armor, and tactics of the period. "We looked at everything from the stitching on the soldiers‘ gambesons to the construction of the longbows," Cane recalls. "The goal was to create a completely immersive visual experience that would transport viewers back to the 15th century."
This commitment to historical authenticity speaks to the enduring power and relevance of medieval illustration in the modern age. Far from being a dry academic exercise, these artworks have the ability to bring the past to life in a visceral, emotionally resonant way.
"At their best, historical illustrations are a form of time travel," says Kelley Hensing. "They allow us to step into the shoes of people who lived centuries ago and see the world through their eyes. That kind of empathetic connection to the past is more important now than ever."
As long as there are stories to be told about the medieval era, it seems, there will be a need for the illustrators who can give those stories visual form. Through their painstaking research and artistic skill, they will continue to illuminate the past and make it accessible to new generations of history enthusiasts.
"It‘s a privilege to be able to bring these moments from the past back to life," says Matthew Ryan. "Every brushstroke is a small act of time travel, a way of keeping the medieval world alive in our imagination. As long as people are still curious about that world, we‘ll keep finding ways to show it to them."
