In the tumultuous decades following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, a series of warlords carved up his vast empire, leading to an era of incessant conflict known as the Wars of the Diadochi. Out of this crucible emerged one of the most renowned military leaders of antiquity: Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus. His costly victories against the rising power of Rome would give rise to the enduring concept of a "Pyrrhic victory."
The Hellenistic World and the Rise of Pyrrhus
Pyrrhus was born around 319 BC into the ruling Aeacid dynasty of Epirus, a mountainous kingdom on the Ionian Sea. He claimed descent from Achilles, the legendary hero of the Trojan War. Like many Hellenistic kings, Pyrrhus dreamed of conquest and glory in the mold of Alexander.
Pyrrhus ascended to the throne in 306 BC after a period of exile and intrigue. He soon proved himself a capable ruler and military innovator. The Roman writer Plutarch describes him as "far superior to any other king of his time in military experience and personal valor." [1]
Under Pyrrhus, the Epirote army adopted the Macedonian phalanx, a dense formation of pikemen that had been the key to Alexander‘s successes. But Pyrrhus also employed war elephants and elite cavalry, creating a formidable combined arms force. He wrote an influential military treatise that was widely studied in the ancient world. [2]
The Invitation from Tarentum
In 281 BC, Rome was still a regional Italian power, but its rising strength alarmed the Greek city-states of Magna Graecia in southern Italy. When Rome clashed with the city of Tarentum, the Tarentines appealed to Pyrrhus for aid, hoping his military prowess could check Roman power.
Pyrrhus saw an opportunity to establish a new empire in the west and he agreed to the alliance. In 280 BC, he landed in Italy with an army Plutarch numbers at 20,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry, 2,000 archers, 500 slingers, and 20 war elephants. [3]
Heraclea: Pyrrhus‘ First Clash With Rome
In 280 BC, Pyrrhus faced a Roman army for the first time at the Battle of Heraclea. According to Plutarch, the Romans fielded a force of around 30,000 infantry, while Dionysius of Halicarnassus claims they had closer to 50,000. [4]
The battle hung in the balance until Pyrrhus personally led a charge of his Thessalian cavalry and deployed his war elephants, which the Romans had never faced before. Plutarch colorfully describes the chaos the elephants wrought: "great was the terror they inspired, and in the heat of action, when the beasts were furious, no one could withstand them." The Romans were routed and Pyrrhus gained a complete victory.
But some ancient sources, like Dionysius, claim Pyrrhus lost 4,000-5,000 men, including many officers, and could ill-afford such losses. [5] The battle foreshadowed the heavy toll Pyrrhus‘ victories would take on his army.
Asculum: The Epirotes Break Again
In 279 BC, Pyrrhus again defeated a large Roman army at the Battle of Asculum. Ancient historians give divergent figures for this battle, but modern estimates suggest the Romans deployed around 40,000 men against 35,000 Greeks and allies under Pyrrhus.[6]
The battle hung in the balance over two days of bloody fighting. Pyrrhus is said to have fought at the forefront and had three horses killed under him. On the second day, he again deployed his elephants to decisive effect. Plutarch describes the aftermath:
"The Romans, however, did not take to flight, but most of them died there at their posts, cut to pieces by the elephants. It is said that nearly 15,000 Romans fell in this battle, while Pyrrhus lost 13,000 of his own men." [7]
While tactically victorious, these losses were ruinous for Pyrrhus‘ cause. So many Epirote officers had fallen that he exclaimed, "If we win one more such battle against the Romans, we will be completely ruined!" It is from this quip, recorded by Plutarch, that we derive the phrase "Pyrrhic victory."
Stalemate in Italy and Sicily
After Asculum, neither side was strong enough to defeat the other. Pyrrhus attempted to negotiate but the Romans, showing their characteristic resolve, refused to treat with a foreign army on Italian soil.
In 278 BC, Pyrrhus shifted his army to Sicily to aid the Greek cities against Carthage. After two years of inconclusive campaigning, he returned to Italy in 276 BC. But his forces were spent and he was unable to make further headway against Rome. A final battle at Beneventum in 275 BC proved indecisive. Recognizing the futility of further efforts, Pyrrhus withdrew from Italy the following year.
Pyrrhus‘ Downfall and Legacy
Returning to Epirus with his reputation diminished and his treasury drained, Pyrrhus soon entangled himself in wars against Macedon and Sparta. In 272 BC, during a confused battle in the streets of Argos, Pyrrhus was felled ignominiously by a tile thrown from a rooftop by an old woman. So ended the career of one of antiquity‘s most celebrated generals.
Though a military genius, Pyrrhus overreached disastrously in his campaigns against Rome and Carthage. His victories came at such cost that they left him worse off than before. As Plutarch opined, "in all that he did, as king and general, one sees nothing but violence and fury."
In his failings as much as his triumphs, Pyrrhus left an indelible mark on history as the archetypal charismatic leader who wins battles but loses wars. Yet he may have had the last word. Plutarch records that on his deathbed, Pyrrhus warned his son to beware making war on Rome. Fittingly, his lavish state funeral pyre, built too close to his palace, ended up burning it down – a Pyrrhic victory indeed.
