Introduction
As the clock strikes midnight on December 31st and fireworks light up the sky, people around the world celebrate the start of a new year. But have you ever wondered how this festive occasion was marked in the distant past? Let‘s take a journey back to medieval times, when the concept of a "New Year" was far more fluid and complex.
The medieval period, spanning roughly from the 5th to the 15th centuries, was a time of great change and upheaval in Europe. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity, and the rise of feudalism all left their mark on society, culture, and the calendar itself. In this article, we‘ll explore the fascinating history of New Year celebrations in the Middle Ages, from the raucous revelry of Twelfth Night to the solemn oaths of the Peacock Vow.
The Christianization of the Calendar
In the early centuries of the medieval era, the Roman church sought to distance itself from the pagan winter solstice festivities that had long been celebrated across Europe. Holidays like Saturnalia, a week-long December feast honoring the god Saturn, and Kalends, a New Year‘s Day celebration marked by gift-giving and revelry, were seen as incompatible with Christian beliefs.
However, as Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, the church began to adapt and incorporate these popular traditions into its own liturgical calendar. By the 4th century, December 25th had been fixed as the date of Christ‘s birth, allowing other religious feasts to fall into place around it. This Christianization of the calendar would have a profound impact on medieval New Year celebrations.
January 1st: The Legacy of Rome
Despite the church‘s efforts to reshape the calendar, January 1st continued to hold significance as the start of the New Year throughout the medieval period. This date, known as the Calends of January, had long been celebrated in ancient Rome as a time for new beginnings and political transitions.
The month of January itself is named after Janus, the two-faced Roman god of doorways, transitions, and time. Medieval Europeans maintained the Roman tradition of exchanging gifts on January 1st, a custom that has since shifted to Christmas Day. Even the practice of making New Year‘s resolutions can be traced back to the Calends, when Romans would make vows of good conduct for the coming year.
The Twelve Days of Christmas
The period between December 25th and January 5th, known as the Twelve Days of Christmas, was a time of great feasting and celebration in medieval Europe. Each day was associated with a different religious feast, culminating in Twelfth Night, or the Feast of the Epiphany, on January 5th.
Twelfth Night marked the arrival of the Magi to present gifts to the infant Jesus, and was thus a time for gift-giving and merrymaking. One popular tradition was the baking of a Twelfth Night cake, into which a bean or coin was placed. Whoever found the hidden treasure in their slice would be crowned "King of the Bean" and would preside over the evening‘s festivities.
Another hallmark of Twelfth Night was the practice of wassailing, a precursor to modern caroling. Wassailers would go door-to-door singing songs and offering blessings in exchange for cups of spiced ale or cider, known as "wassail." The word itself comes from the Old English phrase "waes hael," meaning "be in good health."
The Feast of Fools
One of the more peculiar medieval New Year traditions was the Feast of Fools, celebrated on January 1st or Twelfth Night. This carnivalesque festival involved the inversion of traditional social roles, with young choirboys or subdeacons temporarily taking on the roles of bishops and priests.
Mock masses were held, featuring irreverent songs and satirical sermons. A "Lord of Misrule" was often elected to preside over the chaotic proceedings. While church authorities frequently condemned these subversive celebrations, they persisted throughout the Middle Ages as a way for the lower clergy to blow off steam and challenge the rigid hierarchy of medieval society.
Candlemas: The Closing of the Christmas Season
February 2nd, or Candlemas, marked the official end of the extended Christmas season in the medieval calendar. This feast commemorated the presentation of Jesus at the Temple and the ritual purification of the Virgin Mary, 40 days after giving birth.
Candles played a central role in the Candlemas liturgy, with priests blessing candles for use throughout the year. In some regions, a procession of candles was held through the streets. Weather prognostication was also associated with this day, as evidenced by the old English poem:
"If Candlemas be fair and bright,
Winter has another flight.
If Candlemas brings clouds and rain,
Winter will not come again."
The Medieval English New Year
From the 12th century until 1752, the English New Year officially began on March 25th, the Feast of the Annunciation or "Lady Day." This date marked the angel Gabriel‘s announcement to the Virgin Mary that she would bear the Son of God, placed precisely nine months before Christmas.
Lady Day also served as the start of the legal and fiscal year in England. Rents were due, contracts were signed, and accounts were settled on this day. When England finally adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752, Lady Day shifted to April 5th, explaining the peculiar start date of the British tax year.
Regional Variations and Folk Traditions
While the major feast days and liturgical celebrations were observed throughout medieval Europe, New Year traditions varied considerably from region to region. In France, the Feast of the Ass was celebrated on January 14th, commemorating the flight of the Holy Family into Egypt. A live donkey was led into the church and incorporated into the mass, with the priest braying three times at the conclusion of the service.
In parts of Germany and the Low Countries, the custom of "apple howling" was practiced on Christmas Eve or New Year‘s Eve. Young men would go door-to-door, singing and making noise until they were given apples or other treats. This tradition is thought to have pagan roots, with the apples symbolizing fertility and the howling meant to ward off evil spirits.
Many medieval folk beliefs and superstitions also surrounded the New Year. It was considered good luck to eat certain foods, such as pork, lentils, or black-eyed peas, on January 1st. Conversely, doing laundry or spinning on New Year‘s Day was believed to bring misfortune, as it could "wash away" or "spin away" one‘s good luck for the coming year.
The Peacock Vow: Fact or Fiction?
One of the most intriguing and oft-cited medieval New Year‘s traditions is the so-called "Peacock Vow." According to this legend, knights would gather at a New Year‘s feast and place their hands upon a live or roasted peacock, swearing to uphold the ideals of chivalry in the coming year.
However, the historical evidence for this practice is scant at best. The Peacock Vow appears to have originated in a 14th-century French romance, and there are no reliable accounts of it actually being performed. Nevertheless, the symbolism of the peacock as a representation of nobility, renewal, and the all-seeing eye of the church has captured the imagination of historians and enthusiasts alike.
The Transition to the Gregorian Calendar
One of the challenges in studying medieval New Year celebrations is the complex and often inconsistent nature of the calendar itself. For much of the Middle Ages, Europe followed the Julian calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 BCE. However, this system had an inherent flaw: it overestimated the length of the solar year by about 11 minutes, causing the calendar to slowly drift out of sync with the seasons.
To address this issue, Pope Gregory XIII introduced the Gregorian calendar in 1582, which removed 10 days from the Julian calendar and established a new system of leap years. However, Protestant countries were slow to adopt this Catholic-led reform, with some holding out until the 18th century. England and its colonies, including what would become the United States, finally made the switch in 1752, by which point the discrepancy had grown to 11 days.
This gradual and piecemeal adoption of the Gregorian calendar can make dating medieval events and documents a challenge for historians. In addition, the use of regnal years (i.e., dating by the year of a monarch‘s reign) and differing regional customs can further complicate matters.
Conclusion
As we have seen, the concept of a "New Year" in the medieval period was far from a fixed or uniform affair. From the Roman-influenced Calends of January to the Christian feast days of Twelfth Night and Candlemas, medieval Europeans marked the passage of time with a rich tapestry of religious observances, folk traditions, and communal celebrations.
While many of these customs may seem foreign or even bizarre to modern sensibilities, they offer a fascinating glimpse into the beliefs, values, and social structures of medieval society. The tension between pagan and Christian influences, the importance of ritual and symbolism, and the desire for renewal and fresh starts all found expression in these diverse and colorful New Year festivities.
So the next time you raise a glass of champagne or watch the ball drop in Times Square, take a moment to reflect on the long and winding history of this global celebration. From the wassail bowls of Twelfth Night to the candles of Candlemas, the medieval roots of our modern New Year‘s traditions are still very much alive.
Table 1: Major Medieval Feast Days Associated with the New Year
| Feast Day | Date | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Calends of January | January 1 | Roman New Year, gift-giving |
| Twelfth Night/Epiphany | January 5 | Arrival of the Magi, end of Christmas season |
| Feast of the Ass | January 14 | Commemoration of the Holy Family‘s flight into Egypt |
| Candlemas | February 2 | Presentation of Jesus at the Temple, end of extended Christmas season |
| Lady Day/Annunciation | March 25 | Angel Gabriel‘s announcement to Mary, English New Year |
Table 2: Adoption of the Gregorian Calendar
| Country/Region | Year of Adoption |
|---|---|
| Italy, Poland, Portugal, Spain | 1582 |
| France | 1582 |
| Holy Roman Empire (Catholic states) | 1583 |
| Scotland | 1600 |
| Holy Roman Empire (Protestant states) | 1700 |
| England and colonies | 1752 |
| Sweden | 1753 |
| Japan | 1873 |
| China | 1912 |
| Russia | 1918 |
| Greece | 1923 |
