Introduction
The Norman Conquest of 1066 marked a turning point in English history, as the Anglo-Saxon monarchy was replaced by a new Norman dynasty that would rule England for over a century. The Norman kings brought about significant changes to English society, culture, and politics, introducing new systems of governance, land ownership, and social hierarchy that would have a lasting impact on the country‘s development. In this article, we will explore the reigns of the four Norman kings who ruled England in succession: William the Conqueror, William II, Henry I, and Stephen.
The Norman Conquest and Its Impact
The Norman Conquest began with the Battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066, where the Norman duke William the Conqueror defeated the Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson. This victory marked the end of Anglo-Saxon rule in England and the beginning of a new era under Norman leadership. The Normans, who were descendants of Viking settlers in northern France, brought with them a distinct culture, language, and set of political and social institutions that would reshape English society.
One of the most significant changes brought about by the Norman Conquest was the introduction of feudalism, a hierarchical system of land tenure and military service. Under this system, the king granted land to his nobles in exchange for their loyalty and military support, while the nobles in turn granted land to knights and other vassals in exchange for their services. This created a complex web of obligations and dependencies that helped to consolidate Norman power and control over the country.
The Norman Conquest also had a profound impact on the English language and culture. The Normans spoke French, and their language gradually blended with Old English to create Middle English, which would eventually evolve into the modern English language we know today. Norman French also became the language of the court, administration, and literature, while Latin remained the language of the Church and scholarship.
William the Conqueror (r. 1066-1087)
William the Conqueror, also known as William I, was the first Norman king of England. Born in Normandy as the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I, William became Duke of Normandy in his own right in 1035. In 1066, he claimed the English throne following the death of Edward the Confessor and successfully invaded England, defeating the Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings.
As king, William worked to consolidate his power and establish Norman rule throughout England. He redistributed land to his Norman followers, with the Domesday Book of 1086 recording that Norman barons held around 50% of the country‘s wealth, while the Church held 25% and the king himself held 20% (Morris, 1984). William also built a network of castles to secure his control, with estimates suggesting that around 500 castles were constructed during his reign (Liddiard, 2005).
However, William also faced significant challenges, including rebellions in the north of England which he brutally suppressed in the "Harrying of the North." This campaign of terror and destruction, which took place in 1069-1070, resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of people and the devastation of the region‘s economy and infrastructure. As the chronicler Orderic Vitalis wrote, "The King stopped at nothing to hunt his enemies. He cut down many people and destroyed homes and land. Nowhere else had he shown such cruelty" (quoted in Douglas, 1964, p. 221).
William II (r. 1087-1100)
William II, also known as William Rufus due to his red hair, was the third son of William the Conqueror. He succeeded his father as King of England in 1087, while his elder brother Robert became Duke of Normandy. William‘s reign was marked by tensions with the Church, particularly with Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury, over issues of investiture and clerical marriage.
William never married or had children, leading some historians to speculate about his sexuality. The chronicler Orderic Vitalis described him as "a man given over to every kind of vice" and claimed that "he despised the marriage bond and gave himself up to the lust of the flesh" (quoted in Barlow, 1983, p. 125). However, other historians have argued that these accusations may have been motivated by political or religious opposition to William‘s rule.
William‘s death in 1100 while hunting in the New Forest remains a mystery, with some suggesting he may have been assassinated by his younger brother Henry, who quickly seized the throne. The chronicler William of Malmesbury wrote that "the day before the king died, he dreamed that he was let blood by a surgeon, and that the stream, reaching to heaven, clouded the light and blotted out the day" (quoted in Hollister, 1973, p. 103), which some have interpreted as a premonition of his death.
Henry I (r. 1100-1135)
Henry I, the youngest son of William the Conqueror, succeeded his brother William II as King of England in 1100. He worked to strengthen royal authority and improve the administration of justice, creating the Exchequer to manage royal finances and promoting "new men" from the lower nobility to positions of power.
Henry‘s reign was marked by a succession crisis following the death of his only legitimate son, William Adelin, in the White Ship disaster of 1120. Henry named his daughter, Matilda, as his heir and compelled his barons to swear allegiance to her, but his nephew Stephen of Blois contested her claim after Henry‘s death in 1135.
Henry was known for his effective administration and his ability to generate revenue through taxation and other means. The Pipe Roll of 1130, the earliest surviving record of royal finances, shows that Henry‘s total annual income was around £24,000, a significant sum for the time (Green, 1986). Henry also introduced a number of legal and administrative reforms, including the development of the jury system and the centralization of justice through the royal courts.
Stephen (r. 1135-1154)
Stephen of Blois, a grandson of William the Conqueror, seized the English throne in 1135 following the death of his uncle, Henry I. However, Henry‘s daughter Matilda, who had been named as his heir, also claimed the throne, leading to a period of civil war known as "The Anarchy."
During this time, Stephen faced numerous challenges to his rule, including capture by Matilda‘s forces and a brief period in which Matilda was recognized as "Lady of the English." The conflict was eventually resolved through the Treaty of Wallingford in 1153, which named Matilda‘s son, Henry of Anjou (later Henry II), as Stephen‘s successor.
The Anarchy had a devastating impact on England, with widespread violence, lawlessness, and economic disruption. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle described the period as one in which "there was nothing but disturbance and wickedness and robbery" (quoted in Davis, 1990, p. 15). Many of the reforms and institutions established by the earlier Norman kings were undermined or destroyed during this time, and it would take several decades for the country to recover.
Conclusion
The Norman kings left a lasting impact on England, introducing new systems of governance, land ownership, and social hierarchy that would shape the country for centuries to come. From William the Conqueror‘s decisive victory at Hastings to the chaos of Stephen‘s contested reign, the story of the Norman kings is one of ambition, conflict, and transformation that continues to captivate historians and the public alike.
While the Norman Conquest is often portrayed as a watershed moment in English history, it is important to recognize that the changes brought about by the Norman kings were not always positive or beneficial for the English people. The introduction of feudalism, for example, led to the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a small Norman elite, while the vast majority of the population was reduced to a state of serfdom or near-servitude.
Nevertheless, the Norman period also saw significant cultural and intellectual developments, including the growth of monasteries and schools, the flourishing of literature and the arts, and the increasing use of written records and administrative systems. The Norman kings, for all their flaws and excesses, played a crucial role in laying the foundations for the development of the English state and society in the centuries that followed.
References
- Barlow, F. (1983). William Rufus. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Davis, R. H. C. (1990). King Stephen, 1135-1154 (3rd ed.). London: Longman.
- Douglas, D. C. (1964). William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Green, J. A. (1986). The Government of England Under Henry I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Hollister, C. W. (1973). The Strange Death of William Rufus. Speculum, 48(4), 637-653.
- Liddiard, R. (2005). Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500. Macclesfield: Windgather Press.
- Morris, W. A. (1984). The Medieval English Sheriff to 1300. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
