Stonehenge, the iconic prehistoric monument in Wiltshire, England, has captivated the imaginations of people around the world for centuries. The ring of massive standing stones, each around 13 feet high and weighing up to 30 tons, is an awe-inspiring sight that raises enduring questions: Just how old is Stonehenge, and who built this marvel of ancient engineering?
Construction Phases: A Millennium in the Making
Far from being built overnight, Stonehenge was constructed in several distinct phases over a span of more than 1500 years. Here is a detailed timeline of the key stages in the monument‘s long and complex history:
| Phase | Date | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 3000 BC | First henge monument of circular bank and ditch built |
| 2 | 2900 BC | Timber posts erected in center, cremation burials |
| 3 | 2600 BC | Bluestones brought from Wales, erected in double circle |
| 4 | 2500-2100 BC | Sarsen stones erected in outer circle and trilithons |
| 5 | 2100-1800 BC | Bluestones re-arranged into inner oval and circle |
| 6 | 1600-1500 BC | Earthwork avenue built connecting to River Avon |
The very first stage, dating to around 3000 BC, was a circular ditch and bank measuring over 330 feet in diameter. This enclosed a ring of 56 timber or stone posts. Archaeologists believe this early henge was a cemetery, as cremated remains have been excavated from pits from this phase.
It would not be until nearly a millennium later, in around 2600 BC, that the first stones, known as bluestones for their bluish tinge, would be brought from the Preseli Hills in Wales and erected as a double circle in the center. How these stones, weighing up to 4 tons each, were transported over 150 miles in an era before the wheel or draft animals remains one of Stonehenge‘s greatest mysteries.
The monument underwent a major transformation in around 2500 BC, when the gigantic sarsen stones were brought from the Marlborough Downs 20 miles away and arranged in an outer circle with a continuous run of lintels and five central trilithons in a horseshoe formation. The sarsens can weigh up to 30 tons and stand 18 feet high. Raising them would have been an immense undertaking requiring elaborate feats of Neolithic engineering.
The bluestones were then re-arranged into an inner oval and circle, and an earthwork avenue was built connecting the monument to the River Avon. This final configuration was likely completed around 1500 BC, though work may have continued after this date.
Remarkably, Stonehenge was not an isolated monument but part of a much larger sacred landscape. Recent archaeological surveys using ground-penetrating radar have revealed a two-mile wide ring of large shafts over 10 meters wide and 5 meters deep dating to 2500 BC encircling the site.
According to Professor Vincent Gaffney, one of the lead researchers, these shafts "may have guided people towards the religious sites within the circle or warned others not to cross the boundary to the realm of the dead." This discovery suggests Stonehenge was of far greater significance to Neolithic Britons than previously realized.
The Riddle of the Bluestones
While the mammoth sarsens get the most attention, in many ways the smaller bluestones are Stonehenge‘s biggest mystery. Geologists have traced them to quarry sites in the Preseli Hills of Pembrokeshire using petrographic analysis. Two of the most prominent outcrops are Carn Goedog and Craig Rhos-y-felin, where evidence of Neolithic stone-working has been found.
According to Dr. Joshua Pollard from the University of Southampton, getting the bluestones to Stonehenge was every bit as challenging as raising the sarsens. "The bluestones are big – up to three meters long and weighing several tons. Transporting them was every bit as challenging as moving the sarsens… It‘s an astonishing journey."
So how did Stone Age Britons, with only primitive technology, transport these stones from the far reaches of Wales to the Salisbury Plain? One theory proposes that the stones were carried to the sea, floated on huge rafts, and paddled up the Bristol Channel and River Avon. They would then need to be hauled overland for around 20 miles to reach the site – a monumental feat. As Dr. Pollard put it:
"We‘re talking about a period of time when there wasn‘t the wheel, there weren‘t metal tools… This is an era in which your tool kit is stone, wood, rope, animal skins and not a lot else… Moving the bluestones was a huge endeavor – one that probably involved traversing sacred geographies and seascapes."
Stonehenge as a Place of the Dead
While the question of Stonehenge‘s purpose has long been debated, mounting evidence suggests it functioned as a sacred burial site, particularly in its early phases. Excavations have uncovered 64 cremations dating to around 3000 BC when the first bank and ditch were erected. The remains were not complete skeletons but collections of cremated bone fragments, suggesting the dead may have been excarnated, with the flesh left to rot off the bones before cremation.
According to Professor Michael Parker Pearson of University College London, who has led excavations at Stonehenge, this was a common funerary practice across western Europe in the Neolithic.
"Stonehenge was a place of burial from its beginning to its zenith in the mid third millennium B.C. The cremation burial dating to Stonehenge‘s sarsen stones phase is likely just one of many from this later period of the monument‘s use and demonstrates that it was still very much a ‘domain of the dead.‘"
The rich archaeological landscape surrounding Stonehenge is also filled with burial mounds known as barrows. The famous Bush Barrow near Stonehenge contained the remains of a Wessex chieftain from around 1900 BC buried with a treasure trove of gold objects.
Other historians like Professor Timothy Darvill of Bournemouth University view Stonehenge as a place of healing. He suggests the bluestones were believed to have curative properties and that people traveled great distances to Stonehenge in hopes of being healed. As he explains:
"Stonehenge would attract not only people who were unwell, but people who were capable of [healing] – you can see it as a sort of Neolithic Lourdes."
Still others interpret Stonehenge as an astronomical calendar or a site for ritual feasts and gatherings. In truth, it likely served multiple overlapping roles that shifted over the many centuries it was in active use.
Piecing Together the Puzzle
Before modern scientific archaeology, all manner of wild theories were put forth to explain Stonehenge‘s origins. The 12th-century cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth claimed Merlin magically transported the stones from Ireland. 17th-century antiquarian John Aubrey was the first to link the monument to the Druids, a notion later "conclusively proved" by William Stukeley, who connected it to Celtic Druidism. Stukeley also originated the idea of Stonehenge as a temple to the druids‘ supposed snake deity.
These early gentlemen-scholars laid the foundations for the scientific study of Stonehenge. But it would not be until the 20th century that systematic excavations would begin to peel back the layers of the site‘s long history and offer evidence-based interpretations rooted in archaeological data rather than romantic speculation.
Even today, with all our scientific acumen, much about Stonehenge remains shrouded in mystery and the subject of ongoing research and debate. Perhaps the biggest unanswered question is a simple one – who built it?
While the creators of Stonehenge left no written records, most historians agree the monument was built by the late Neolithic and Bronze Age people of the Salisbury Plain. These ancient Britons had sophisticated engineering knowledge and a complex society capable of marshalling the massive resources and labor force needed to construct Stonehenge.
According to Dr. Heather Sebire of English Heritage, while we may never know the identities of individual builders, "we do know that Stonehenge was built by the ancestors of the people who farm the Wiltshire countryside today – ordinary people achieving the extraordinary."
Experience Stonehenge Today
Today, Stonehenge is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site managed by English Heritage. It draws over 1.5 million visitors per year from around the globe who come to marvel at this enduring symbol of humanity‘s ancient past.
While visitors can no longer walk among the stones, you can get an up-close view from behind the perimeter rope. The site has an excellent visitor center with displays on Stonehenge‘s long history and many mysteries, including over 250 archaeological artifacts and the skeleton of a 5,500-year-old man.
The visitor center is situated 1.5 miles from the stone circle, linked by shuttle buses. In addition to the visitor center, there are also six recreated Neolithic houses offering a glimpse into the lifestyle of the people who built and lived around Stonehenge.
To make the most of your visit, book tickets well in advance as they can sell out. It‘s best to go in early morning or evening to avoid the crowds at midday. Consider booking a special access visit to experience Stonehenge at sunrise or sunset and get a closer view of the stones.
Several guided tours are offered, led by historians and Stonehenge experts, that offer fascinating insights into the monument and its landscape. And for a truly unforgettable experience, plan a trip to coincide with the summer or winter solstice when visitors can walk among the stones and feel the ancient, numinous power of this sacred place.
Over eight centuries after the last stone was raised, Stonehenge continues to inspire awe and wonder. While ongoing research sheds new light on the age-old questions surrounding the monument, the greatest puzzle remains that of the motivation and vision of Stonehenge‘s creators. What drove them to invest such immense resources and toil into this mighty feat of prehistoric engineering?
As Dr. Sebire puts it, "Stonehenge was built by people who shared common beliefs and a shared understanding of the world that we have perhaps lost. But when we look at the monuments left by these people, we marvel at them and begin to reconnect with our ancestors, both recent and in deep history."
However much Stonehenge‘s deepest secrets elude us, perhaps its most enduring power is this sense of connection to the boundless dreams and potential of humanity – and the timeless mystery that beckons us to continue exploring and striving to unravel the riddles left by those who came before.
